The First Seven Ecumenical Councils, as
commonly understood, are:
- First Council of Nicaea (325)
- First Council of Constantinople (381)
- Council of Ephesus (431)
- Council of Chalcedon (451)
- Second Council of Constantinople
(553)
- Third Council of Constantinople (680)
- Second Council of Nicaea (787)
However, not all of these Councils have
been universally recognised as
ecumenical. As indicated above, the Assyrian Church of the East
accepts only the first two, and Oriental Orthodoxy only three. Present-day
nontrinitarians, such as
Unitarians,
Latter Day Saints,
Quakers,
Christadelphians and
Jehovah's Witnesses, reject all seven Councils.
[edit]
First
Council of Nicaea (325)
Emperor Constantine presents a
representation of the city of
Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and baby Jesus in
this church mosaic.
St Sophia, c. 1000).
Emperor Constantine convened this
council to settle a controversial issue, the relation between
Jesus Christ and
God the Father. The Emperor wanted to establish universal agreement on
it. Representatives came from across the Empire, subsidized by the
Emperor. Previous to this council, the bishops would hold local councils,
such as the
Council of Jerusalem, but there had been no universal, or ecumenical,
council.
The council drew up a creed, the
original Nicene Creed, which received nearly unanimous support. The
council's description of "God's only-begotten Son",
Jesus Christ, as of the
same substance with
God the Father became a touchstone of Christian
Trinitarianism. The council also addressed the issue of dating Easter
(see
Quartodecimanism and
Easter controversy), recognised the right of the see of Alexandria to
jurisdiction outside of its own province (by analogy with the jurisdiction
exercised by Rome) and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and the
other provinces[4]
and approved the custom by which
Jerusalem was honoured, but without the metropolitan dignity.[5]
The Council was opposed by the
Arians,
and Constantine tried to reconcile
Arius,
after whom Arianism is named, with the Church. Even when Arius died in
336, one year before the death of Constantine, the controversy continued,
with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or
another.[6]
In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula
stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the
scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism.[6]
The opponents of Arianism rallied, but in the First Council of
Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within
the Empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes,
among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of the
Franks to
Catholicism in 496.[6]
[edit]
Constantine
commissions Bibles
In 331,
Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the
Church of Constantinople.
Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around
340 preparing Bibles for
Constans.
Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example,
it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for
canon lists, and that
Codex Vaticanus and
Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the
Peshitta
and
Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.[7]
[edit]
First Council of Constantinople (381)
The council approved the current form of
the
Nicene Creed as used in the
Eastern Orthodox Church and
Oriental Orthodox churches, but, except when
Greek is used, with two additional
Latin
phrases ("Deum de Deo" and "Filioque") in the West. The form used by the
Armenian Apostolic Church, which is part of
Oriental Orthodoxy, has many more additions.[8]
This fuller creed may have existed before the Council and probably
originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople.[9]
The council also condemned
Apollinarism,[10]
the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ.[11]
It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save
Rome.[10]
The council did not include Western
bishops or Roman legates, but it was accepted as ecumenical in the West.[10]
[edit]
First
Council of Ephesus (431)
Theodosius II called the council to
settle the Nestorian controversy. Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
opposed use of the term
Theotokos (Greek Η Θεοτόκος, "God-Bearer").[12]
This term had long been used by orthodox writers, and it was gaining
popularity along with devotion to Mary as Mother of God.[12]
He reportedly taught that there were two separate persons in the incarnate
Christ, though whether he actually taught this is disputed.[12]
The council deposed Nestorius,
repudiated
Nestorianism, proclaimed the Virgin
Mary as the
Theotokos.
After quoting the
Nicene Creed in its original form, as at the First Council of Nicaea,
without the alterations and additions made at the First Council of
Constantinople, it declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or
to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that
established by the holy Fathers assembled with the
Holy Ghost in Nicæa."[13]
[edit]
Council of
Chalcedon (451)
The council repudiated the
Eutychian
doctrine of
monophysitism, described and delineated the "Hypostatic
Union" and
two natures of Christ, human and divine; adopted the
Chalcedonian Creed. For those who accept it, it is the Fourth
Ecumenical Council (calling the previous council, which was rejected by
this council, the "Robber
Synod" or "Robber
Council").
[edit]
Before the council
In November 448, a synod at
Constantinople condemned Eutyches for unorthodoxy.[14]
Eutyches, archimandrite (abbot) of a large Constinapolitan monastery,[15]
taught that Christ was not
consubstantial with humanity.[16]
In 449, Theodosius II summoned a council
at Ephesus, where Eutyches was exonerated and returned to his monastery.[17]
This council was later overturned by the Council of Chalcedon and labeled
"Latrocinium" (i.e., "Robber Council").[18]
[edit]
Second Council of Constantinople (553)
This council condemned certain Nestorian
writings and authors. This move was instigated by Emperor Justinian in an
effort to conciliate the monophysite Christians, it was opposed in the
West, and the Popes' acceptance of the council caused a major schism.[19]
[edit]
Three Chapters
Prior to the Second Council of Chalcedon
was a prolonged controversy over the treatment of three subjects, all
considered sympathetic to Nestorianism, the heresy that there are two
separate persons in the Incarnation of Christ.[20]
Emperor Justinian condemned the Three Chapters, hoping to appeal to
monophysite Christians with his anti-Nestorian zeal.[21]
Monophysites believe that in the Incarnate Christ there is one nature, not
two.[22]
Eastern Patriarchs supported the
Emperor, but in the West his interference was resented, and Pope Vigilius
resisted his edict on the grounds that it opposed the Chalcedonian
decrees.
[23] Justinian's policy was in fact an attack on Antiochene
theology and the decisions of Chalcedon.[24]
The pope assented and condemned the Three Chapters, but protests in the
West caused him to retract his condemnation.[25]
The emperor called the Second Council of Constantinople to resolve the
controversy.[26]
[edit]
Council proceedings
The council, attended mostly by Eastern
bishops, condemned the Three Chapters and, indirectly, the Pope Vigilius.[27]
It also affirmed Constantinople's intention to remain in communion with
Rome.[28]
[edit]
After the council
Vigilius declared his submission to the
council, as did his successor, Pelagius I.[29]
The council was not immediately recognized as ecumenical in the West, and
Milan and Aquileia even broke off communion with Rome over this issue.[30]
The schism was not repaired until the late 6th century for Milan and the
late 7th century for Aquileia.[31]
Emperor Justinian's policy failed to
reconcile the Monophysites.[32]
[edit]
Third
Council of Constantinople
Third Council of Constantinople (680–681): repudiated
monothelitism, a once popular and widely supported doctrine, affirming
that Christ had both human and divine wills.
[edit]
Quinisext Council
Quinisext Council (= Fifth and Sixth) or Council in
Trullo
(692) has not been accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Since it was
mostly an administrative council for raising some local canons to
ecumenical status, establishing principles of clerical discipline,
addressing the
Biblical canon, and establishing the
Pentarchy, without determining matters of doctrine, the
Eastern Orthodox Church does not consider it to be a full-fledged
council in its own right, instead it is considered to be an extension of
the fifth and sixth councils.
[edit]
Second Council of
Nicaea
Second Council of Nicaea (787). In 753, Emperor Constantine V convened
the Synod of Hieria, which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented
him and that images of Mary and the saints were idols.[33]
The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration of
icons and
ended the first
iconoclasm.
[edit]
Subsequent events
In the 9th century, Emperor Michael III
struggled to appoint Photius as Patriarch of Constantinople and Pope
Nicholas I struggled to keep Ignatius there. After Michael was murdered,
Ignatius was reinstated as patriarch without challenge.[34]
An ecumenical council in Constantinople, held while Ignatius was
Patriarch, anathematized Photius.[35]
With Ignatius' death in 877, Photius became patriarch, and in 879-80 an
ecumenical council in Constantinople annulled the decision of the previous
council.[36]
The West takes only the first as truly ecumenical and legitimate. The East
takes only the second.
[edit]
See also
General:
[edit]
References
-
^
Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: Introductory Note to Council of
Trullo: "From the fact that the canons of the Council in
Trullo are included in this volume of the Decrees and Canons of the
Seven Ecumenical Councils it must not for an instant be supposed that
it is intended thereby to affirm that these canons have any ecumenical
authority, or that the council by which they were adopted can lay any
claim to being ecumenical either in view of its constitution or of the
subsequent treatment by the Church of its enactments."
-
^
Encyclopædia Britannica "Quinisext Council".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 14, 2010. "The
Western Church and the
Pope were
not represented at the council.
Justinian, however, wanted the Pope as well as the
Eastern bishops to sign the canons.
Pope Sergius I (687–701) refused to sign, and the canons were
never fully accepted by the Western Church".
-
^
Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster.
1972
-
^
canon 6
-
^
canon 7
- ^
a
b
c
"Arianism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford
dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
-
^ The
Canon Debate, McDonald and Sanders editors, 2002, pages 414-415,
for the entire paragraph
-
^
Armenian Church Library: Nicene Creed
-
^ "Nicene
Creed." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^
a
b
c
"Constantinople, First Council of."
Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Apollinarius."
Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^
a
b
c
"Nestorius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford
dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
-
^
canon 7
-
^
"Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Eutyches" and "Archimandrite." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford
dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
-
^
"Monophysitism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Constantinople, Second Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford
dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
-
^ "Nestorianism"
and "Three Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Monophysitism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the
Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Constantinople, Second Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford
dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
-
^
"Constantinople, Second Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford
dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
-
^ "Three
Chapters." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^
"Iconoclastic Controversy." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of
the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Photius."
Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Photius."
Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2005
-
^ "Photius."
Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2005
